Dunhuang murals: an art treasure house in the desert

“有金像辇，去地三尺，施宝盖，四面垂金铃七宝珠，飞天伎乐，望之云表。”

——《洛阳伽蓝记》

"There is a golden chariot, three feet off the ground, with a jeweled canopy, golden bells and seven-jeweled pearls hanging from all four sides, and celestial music and dance, which can be seen in the clouds."

——"Record of Buddhist Monasteries in Luoyang"

The flying fairies in the Dunhuang murals appeared at the same time as the caves were built, starting from the Sixteen Kingdoms, and lasting for more than a thousand years through ten dynasties until the end of the Yuan Dynasty. There are flying fairies in almost every cave of the 492 caves in the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang.

The flying fairies in Dunhuang have been constantly changing in posture, artistic conception, style and taste over the past thousand years due to the change of dynasties and the frequent exchanges between Chinese and Western cultures.

For example, during the heyday of the flying fairies in Dunhuang, that is, the entire Tang Dynasty, the image of the flying fairies in Dunhuang reached its most perfect stage, and they were completely Chinese flying fairies. The great Tang Dynasty poet Li Bai sang a poem praising the flying fairies in Dunhuang: "Holding lotus in her white hands, she treads on the space with empty steps. Her colorful clothes drag a wide belt, floating up to the sky."

How did flying apsaras come into being? From the Northern Liang, Northern Wei, Western Wei to the Song, Western Xia, and Yuan dynasties, what evolution did the paintings and sculptures of the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang experience over a period of nearly 1,000 years?

Sui Dynasty: The most artistic creation of flying celestial beings, basically the Central Plains style of female figures

The Sui Dynasty was established for only 30 years. Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty, Yang Jian, and Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty, Yang Guang, both worshipped Buddhism. During this period, Buddhism was in full swing. In just over 30 years, more than 100 caves were built in the Mogao Grottoes, which is the most shining part of the historical site. At this time, the number of flying apsaras in Dunhuang increased sharply, and all the caves were painted with flying apsaras. The art of flying apsaras in Dunhuang reached its peak, which was also closely related to the court's vigorous advocacy of painting flying apsaras. According to historical records, Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty was particularly fond of flying apsaras. He once asked craftsmen in the palace to create "moving flying apsaras" for him, hanging curtains and brocade curtains on the gates, and decorating wooden flying apsaras. Through mechanical transmission, the flying apsaras could rise up and down, and roll up the brocade curtains to rise.

The painting of flying celestials in Dunhuang reached its peak in the Sui Dynasty. The flying celestials were not only beautifully painted and colorful, but also unrestrained and free to fly, showing a sense of movement and vitality. They had completely gotten rid of the influence of the Western painting style and replaced it with the Central Plains techniques. The creation of flying celestials was vivid, and the layout was mostly in groups, connected from beginning to end, and each had its own posture.

The flying celestials were basically Central Plains female shapes, some with thin faces and slender figures; some with plump and beautiful bodies, graceful and affectionate eyebrows. The dynamics of flying celestials were varied, with tilts, soaring and diving, and they were not restricted to one style. On the four walls of some caves, there were flying celestials painted in a belt around the cave, with the celestial palace railing wall pattern as the boundary, and flying celestials replaced the past celestial palace music, such as Caves 244 and 390 of Mogao Grottoes. This was a feature of the changes in flying celestials in the Sui Dynasty. There is also a special form. In Cave 276 of Mogao Grottoes, there is a flying fairy playing a reversing konghou (pronounced: konghou, an ancient traditional stringed instrument, shaped like a harp). There are many figures of reversing pipa in Mogao Grottoes, but this is the only example of reversing konghou. Reversing musical instruments is contrary to the natural laws of the human body and is an imaginary artistic modeling.

The flying fairies of the Sui Dynasty have rich forms of expression, and the painting techniques are becoming more and more mature. The modeling is not mainly based on lines, but lines and colors are used together. A large number of colors are used for layout, the colors are strong, and the effect is extremely strong. In addition, the flying fairies are often arranged with flame patterns in several colors, which looks brilliant and imaginative. The group composition of the flying fairies makes people feel that the caves of the Sui Dynasty are full of dazzling things, and it is indeed the world of flying fairies.

Outside the caisson, with the lotus flame Mani jewel as the center, a group of flying celestials are flying through the clouds in the ceiling, their postures are chic and informal. Their shapes are secular, some of them have double buns like girls, some wear right-exposed cassocks like monks, and their costumes include long skirts, cassocks, skirts, and long pants.

In the ground between the preaching scene and the fence of the heavenly palace, there are paintings of flying figures circling the cave, holding flowers, playing flutes, and beating drums. Their figures are graceful and beautiful, with accurate shapes and a sense of rhythm. This cave is the most exquisite and representative cave with murals painted in the Sui Dynasty.

The flying figures are flying in the triangular space above the flame pattern backlight, with their upper bodies bare. Some hold flower trays for offering, while others play konghou, pipa, flute and sheng, which are full of sound and color. The painting method is to use thick black lines to outline the face, while the hair and crown are not outlined with thick lines, forming a strange picture effect.

The flying figure has two buns on her head and plays the konghou with her back turned. Her movements are realistic, her ribbons are flying, and her image is elegant. This is the only example of a figure playing the konghou with her back turned in the Dunhuang murals.

The flying fairy on the side of the Buddha's canopy wears a crown, has a large chest and a thin waist, and has the characteristics of a female figure. She holds a lotus or a flower plate and scatters flowers. She hovers in the auspicious clouds, soaring freely, with bright and warm colors. The numerous flying fairies depicted on the top of the niche are the characteristics of the caves of the Sui Dynasty.

The best of Dunhuang: The dynasty that built caves most frequently in Mogao Grottoes, the Sui Dynasty is the dynasty that built caves most frequently in Mogao Grottoes. According to incomplete statistics, the Sui Dynasty, which lasted only 38 years, built more than 100 caves in Mogao Grottoes, including 101 new caves and five rebuilt caves of the Northern Dynasties. The four dynasties of the Sixteen Kingdoms, Northern Liang, Northern Wei, Western Wei, and Northern Zhou, lasted more than 180 years, and there are only 36 existing caves, only one-third of the Sui Dynasty.

Heyday: Tang and Five Dynasties (618-959)

The Tang Empire, which dominated the world, ruled China for nearly 300 years, during which Buddhism reached its peak. The Tang Dynasty is divided into two periods, with the Tibetan occupation of Dunhuang as the boundary. In the early Tang Dynasty, the country was thriving, and the cave murals were gorgeous and colorful, with a fresh and refreshing style. In the late Tang Dynasty, the Tubo occupied Dunhuang. Since the Tubo people also believed in Buddhism and the Tang Dynasty culture was deeply rooted, the artistic style was inherited from one generation to another with little change. From the Tang Dynasty to the Five Dynasties, Dunhuang art entered a period of maturity, finalization, and proceduralization.

Tang Dynasty: Flying Apsaras were transformed into palace maids and dancers, showing more secular customs

The Tang Dynasty, which lasted nearly three hundred years, was an extremely glorious period of history. The strong national power provided sufficient material conditions for the development and growth of Buddhism. The rulers' advocacy and support of Buddhism for political purposes or their own beliefs directly promoted the prosperity of Buddhism. The Dunhuang Grottoes also presented an unprecedentedly glorious situation. There are 236 existing Tang Dynasty caves, accounting for half of all caves.

The flying apsaras in the murals at this time were the flying apsaras who had gone through the Northern Liang, Northern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Zhou, and Sui dynasties, and completed the process of sinicization in nearly three hundred years. Their basic image was Bodhisattva clothing and female body shape, especially during the heyday of the Tang Dynasty, which was influenced by court dance and ladies' paintings. Their painting method changed from romantic and exaggerated to realistic, from heavenly beings to charming palace maids and dancers. The pink wall and red and blue completely entered the category of figure painting, with meticulous outlines, heavy colors and flat painting, and vivid images.

The sutra paintings that appeared in the Tang Dynasty were huge in size and rich in content. The paintings reflected the patriarchal system centered on the emperor at that time, implying the supreme royal power and the hierarchical social order, satisfying the rulers' desire for power. In a sense, sutra paintings are also visual symbols of imperial power. Because the rendering of sutra paintings diluted the religious atmosphere, the abstraction and mystery in the Buddhist concept turned into the reality of the world, which suddenly enhanced the secularity. The shape of flying celestials is close to real life, and even flying celestials are painted as the most fashionable female portraits, which has become a completely realistic Chinese painting of ladies, with distinct Central Plains characteristics and national style. Not only that, the face shape of flying celestials has also turned into the face of the Central Plains, and the image of the Western Regions has disappeared. The basic characteristics of the flying celestials that are still preserved are half-naked, bare arms, bare feet, and decorated with bracelets. Representative caves include Mogao Caves 329, 331, and 320.

The flying fairy has a light body, graceful and relaxed posture, long skirt wrapped around the feet, scarves and ribbons with different colors, but peaceful and happy eyebrows, and gorgeous decorations are visible, gorgeous and unique. This is the famous double flying fairy in Dunhuang murals.

The flying celestial being has a bun on his head, thin eyebrows and fine eyes, and flexible limbs. He holds a lotus in one hand and scatters flowers with the other. His gestures are lively, just like a woman. And on his oval face, there are two small mustaches, indicating that he is a man dressed as a woman.

In the Amitabha Sutra, above the magnificent pavilion, various musical instruments with ribbons are floating in the vast sky, playing without being played. Apsaras fly through the pavilions to the melody, as light as swallows, surrounded by auspicious clouds, depicting the fairyland mentioned in the Buddhist scriptures. Giving the static building a sense of movement is the success of the painting.

Four flying figures are hovering above the canopy of Amitabha Buddha, looking back and forth, raising their hands to scatter flowers and playing, full of vitality and joy. The postures are powerful and the sense of flying is strong. The "black flying figures" are caused by the change of color. This picture is the most eye-catching representative work of flying figures in Dunhuang and is widely cited in modern decorations and crafts.

The flying fairy has a slender figure, is covered with jewels, and holds a lotus flower plate in one hand and a peony bud in the other, as she flies down. The line drawing is smooth and powerful, the colors are colorful, and the layers are dyed. The gold lines are refreshing and stunning, indicating that the flying fairy in the prosperous Tang Dynasty had entered the category of meticulous ladies' paintings.

The best of Dunhuang: The dynasty with the most caves built in Mogao Grottoes. According to the "Monument to the Reconstruction of the Buddha Niches in Mogao Grottoes" written by Li Kerang in the first year of the Shengli Period of Wu Zhou in the Tang Dynasty (698 AD), more than 1,000 niches were built in Mogao Grottoes from the second year of Jianyuan in the Former Qin Dynasty to the first year of Shengli in the Wu Zhou Dynasty in the Tang Dynasty. There are 492 caves in existence in Mogao Grottoes, and 232 caves were built in the Tang Dynasty, almost half of the existing caves. The Tang Dynasty is the dynasty that built the most caves in the history of Mogao Grottoes, and it is also the dynasty with the most existing caves.

Five Dynasties Period: The number of flying celestials decreased, the shapes were monotonous and lacked novelty, and gradually turned to decline

During the Five Dynasties period in Central China, the imperial court declined and most of the northern areas were occupied by ethnic minorities. Only Dunhuang maintained the local political power of the Han people and maintained its connection with the Central Plains dynasty. At this time, the murals in the Dunhuang caves emphasized various sutra changes, which made the original large-scale sutra changes smaller and more cumbersome. There were even more than ten sutra changes in one cave, losing the sense of integrity and majesty. Feitian paintings also entered the Decline stage.

First of all, due to the rise of esoteric sutra paintings (esoteric Buddhism advocates Maitreya and Guanyin beliefs), the number of Feitian has been greatly reduced, and some caves are not even painted. In the caves where the flying apsaras are painted, the proportion of the flying apsaras in the murals is also significantly reduced. Typical caves that still exist in the Five Dynasties include Mogao Grottoes 468 and 61, as well as Cave 100 and 98.

Secondly, due to the increasing secularity of murals at this time, a large number of street life appeared in travel pictures and meridians paintings, which affected the creation of Feitian, making the image of Feitian resemble the portrayal of women at that time. The Feitian figures are all female, with their hair in a single bun, beautiful faces, slightly dotted red lips, euphemistic expressions, and elegant scarves, making them look like fairies from the Pure Land. Although the image still retains the painting style of the Tang Dynasty and shows the skillful style of meticulous lady painting, it is far less gorgeous than it was in the Tang Dynasty.

The painting style of the Five Dynasties was a continuation of the late Tang Dynasty. The mural technique of lightly dyeing the burnt ink was widely used in the Mogao Grottoes. This painting method has bright colors and strong outlines. This technique is also used in the drawing of Feitian, so that the characters are handled with precision. However, the strong expressiveness in technique cannot cover up the paleness in art. Feitian paintings from the late Tang Dynasty to the Five Dynasties have become more procedural, and the number of masterpieces with innovative artistic conception has dropped sharply.

The flying fairy is dressed as a bodhisattva, holding a lotus in one hand and a flower bud in the other, lying on her back and dancing in the colorful clouds. At this time, the flying fairy in Dunhuang became routine and had a single style. Although this picture is neat, the clouds, ribbons, clothing and even facial expressions tend to be patterned and lack vitality.

Two flying figures are flying horizontally, the upper one is wearing gorgeous clothes, and the lower one is a girl with double buns, with plump face, flowers in her hands, simple clothes, vigorous and full of life. The cheeks and body skin are smudged with red, with clear and smooth lines, inheriting the painting style of the Tang Dynasty.

Decline: Song, Western Xia, Yuan (960-1368)

The Song Dynasty, Western Xia Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty belong to the late period of Dunhuang murals. During this period, the painting of flying celestials entered a period of decline, and the beautiful and moving celestial music and dance on the murals also came to an end.

Song Dynasty: The painting of flying celestial beings became more formulaic and the modeling lacked vitality

In the Song Dynasty murals, the overall trend of flying apsaras painting is gradually declining. Not only the number of flying apsaras paintings has decreased, but also the modeling lacks vitality and spirit. Some are even weak in character, powerless in flying, and lack of emotion and rhyme. The reasons are: first, the continuous wars and the people's livelihood are difficult to arouse people's joy, and the financial resources for the construction of grottoes are also affected. Second, the rise of Tantric Buddhism, which advocates the belief in Maitreya and Guanyin, rarely sees flying apsaras in statues. Another important reason is that the Cao family, who was in charge of the Dunhuang area at that time, followed the system of the Northern Song Dynasty court to establish a painting academy in Guazhou, which made the painting of flying apsaras become stylized and lack of novelty.

In the early days of the establishment of the Dunhuang Painting Academy, the line drawing modeling was quite bold, bold, rich, and varied, especially in the shaping of the characters' faces, the brushwork was strong, the spirit was vigorous, and it had inner strength. But after Cao Yuanzhong, the line drawing became weak and powerless, and the artistic cultivation was insufficient, but the overall effect showed the unity of the painting academy and serious stylization.

The flying figures in the courtyard murals generally have round faces, dignified expressions, and slim bodies like girls. They are dressed as Bodhisattvas, wearing shawls diagonally, and ribbons decorated with stripes. The shapes are mostly won by lines, and the lines are strong and smooth. They are basically line drawings, and only the ornaments, skirts, and scarves are painted. The colors are mainly stone green and ochre red, which are cold and warm, simple and elegant. Typical examples include the flying figures in Cave 76 of Mogao Grottoes and Cave 26 of Yulin Grottoes. The flying figures in Cave 76 of Mogao Grottoes are painted around the cave. However, the dynamic flow of the flying figures at this time is insufficient, and the skill in the use of lines is quite evident. It is a representative work of the courtyard painting.

The flying fairy has a round face, long eyebrows and eyes, wears a crown, a high bun, a large scarf draped over her, and a long skirt, and holds a golden Mani Pearl in both hands. The figure is beautifully shaped and finely painted, making it a masterpiece of the Song Dynasty.

On both sides of the Buddha's canopy in the Pure Land Transformation, flying celestials are flying down on clouds. Their faces are short and round, like a girl, with a lucky mole on their foreheads, and they have two buns on their heads, holding flowers in their hands for offering. The outlines are drawn with ink lines, and the main colors are stone green, ochre red and white, with a distinctive style. The gorgeousness of the canopy and garlands is a legacy of the Five Dynasties.

The two flying figures are facing each other and holding a large Mani Pearl. The flying figures are dressed in gorgeous clothes and have many jewelry ornaments. Their shapes and outlines reflect the style of the times. The colors are cold, mainly blue, green and gray.

Western Xia Dynasty: The flying figures are mostly in the style of ethnic minorities

The Dangxiang were a northern nomadic people. In the early 12th century, the Dangxiang fought a long war with the Ganzhou Uighurs for the Hexi Corridor. The Dangxiang army captured Ganzhou and occupied the entire Hexi Corridor. After occupying Hexi, the Dangxiang established the Great Xia Kingdom and established a unique Xixia culture in just two hundred years. Xixia culture was influenced by the agricultural and pastoral cultures of the Central Plains Han people and the Liao, Jin, Uighur, and Tubo, and had a unique writing system.

During the Uighur and Xixia periods, there were not many new caves in the Dunhuang area, most of which were rebuilt. In Mogao Grottoes and Yulin Grottoes, there are very wonderful relics, reflecting the decorative characteristics of the Uighur and Dangxiang art. For example, the common mural style of the Xixia caves is a round flower brocade ground, with thousands of Buddhas painted, and the figures are strong and short-legged, with Xixia modeling characteristics; the caves influenced by the Uighurs painted mandalas. This feature can also be seen from the flying apsaras painted at this time.

The flying fairy has a high bun, a crown, a halo, a plump face, phoenix eyes, and a skirt. One plays the pipa and the other plays the zither, which is lively and harmonious. The figure has a strong body and short legs, which is a characteristic of the Western Xia style. The line drawing is delicate and the color is light, which is a masterpiece of the Western Xia.